What makes a life virtuous? The answer might seem simple: virtuous actions \u2013 actions that align with morality.<\/p>\n
But life is more than doing. Frequently, we just think. We observe and spectate; meditate and contemplate. Life often unfolds in our heads.<\/p>\n
As\u00a0a philosopher<\/a>, I specialise in the Enlightenment thinker Immanuel Kant<\/a>, who had volumes \u2013 literally \u2013 to say about virtuous actions. What I find fascinating, however, is that Kant also believed people can think virtuously, and should.<\/p>\n To do so,\u00a0he identified three simple rules<\/a>, listed and explained in his 1790 book, Critique of the Power of Judgment<\/em>, namely:<\/p>\n Think for yourself. Think in the position of everyone else. And, finally, think in harmony with yourself.<\/em><\/p><\/blockquote>\n If followed, he thought a ‘sensus communis’, or ‘communal sense’, could result, improving mutual understanding by helping people appreciate how their ideas relate to others\u2019 ideas.<\/p>\n Given our current world, with\u00a0its ‘post-truth’ culture<\/a>\u00a0and isolated echo chambers, I believe Kant\u2019s lessons in virtuous thinking offer important tools today.<\/p>\n Thinking can be both active and passive. We can choose where to direct our attention and use reason to solve problems or consider why things happen. Still, we cannot completely control our stream of thought; feelings and ideas bubble up from influences outside our control.<\/p>\n One kind of passive thinking is letting others think for us. Such passive thinking, Kant thought, was not good for anybody. When we accept someone else\u2019s argument without a second thought, it is like handing them the wheel to think for us. But thoughts lie at the foundation of who we are and what we do, thus we should beware of abdicating control.<\/p>\n Kant had a word for handing over the wheel \u2013 <\/span>‘heteronomy’ or surrendering freedom to another authority. For him,\u00a0virtue depended on the opposit <\/a>\u00a0\u2013 <\/span>‘autonomy’, or the ability to determine our own principles of action.<\/p>\n The same principle holds true for thinking, Kant wrote. We have an obligation to take responsibility for our own thinking and to check its overarching validity and soundness.<\/p>\n In Kant\u2019s day, he was especially concerned about superstition, since it provides consoling, oversimplified answers to life\u2019s problems.<\/p>\n Today,\u00a0superstition is still widespread<\/a>. But many new, pernicious forms of trying to control thought now proliferate, thanks to generative artificial intelligence and the amount of time we spend online. The\u00a0rise of deepfakes<\/a>, the use of\u00a0ChatGPT for creative tasks<\/a>, and information ecosystems that block out opposing views are but a few examples.<\/p>\n Kant\u2019s Rule 1 tells us to approach content and opinions cautiously. Healthy skepticism provides a buffer and leaves room for reflection. In short, active or autonomous thinking protects people from those who seek to think for them.<\/p>\n Pride often tempts us to believe that we have everything figured out. Rule 2 checks this pride.<\/p>\n Kant recommends what philosophers call ‘epistemic humility’<\/a>, or humility about our own knowledge.<\/p>\n Stepping outside our own beliefs isn\u2019t just about opening up new perspectives. It\u2019s also the bedrock of science, which\u00a0seeks shared agreement<\/a>\u00a0about\u00a0what is and is not true<\/a>.<\/p>\n Suppose you\u2019re in a meeting and a consensus is taking shape. Strong personalities and a quorum support it, but you remain unsure.<\/p>\n At this point, Rule 2 does not recommend that you adopt the view of the others. Quite the opposite, in fact. If you simply accept the group\u2019s conclusion without further thought, you\u2019d be breaking Rule 1: Think for yourself.<\/p>\n Instead, Rule 2 prescribes temporarily detaching yourself from even your own way of thinking, especially your own biases. It\u2019s an opportunity to “think in the position of everyone else”<\/a>. What would a fair and discerning thinker make of this situation?<\/p>\n Kant believed that, while difficult, a standpoint can be achieved in which biases all but vanish. We might notice things that we missed before. But this requires appreciating our own limitations and seeking a wider, more universal view.<\/p>\n Again, Kant\u2019s idea of virtue depends on autonomy, so Rule 2 isn\u2019t about letting others think for us. To be responsible for how we shape the world, we must take responsibility for our own thinking, since everything flows from that point outward.<\/p>\n But it emphasises the ‘communal’ part of the ‘sensus communis’, reminding us that it must be possible to share what is true.<\/p>\n The final rule, Kant maintained, is both the most difficult and profound. He said that it was\u00a0the task of becoming ‘einstimmig<\/a>‘, literally \u201cof one voice\u201d with ourselves. He also uses a related term ‘konsequent’ \u2013 coherent \u2013 to express the same idea.<\/p>\n To clarify, a metaphor that Kant employed can help \u2013\u00a0namely, carpentry<\/a>.<\/p>\n Constructing a building is complex. The blueprint must be sound, the building materials must be high quality, and craftsmanship matters. If the nails are hammered sloppily or steps performed out of order, then the edifice might collapse.<\/p>\n Rule 3 tells us to construct our abode of thought with the same care as when constructing a house, such that stability between the parts results. Each thought, belief and intention is a building block. To be ‘einstimmig’ or ‘b\u00fcndig’ \u2013 to be in ‘harmony’ \u2013 these building blocks should fit well together and support each other.<\/p>\n Imagine a colleague who you believe has impeccable taste. You trust his opinions. But one day, he shares his secret obsession with death metal music \u2013 a genre you dislike.<\/p>\n A disharmony in thought might result. Your reaction to his love of death metal reveals a further belief: your belief that only people with disturbed taste could love something you perceive to be so grating to the spirit. But he seems, otherwise, like such a thoughtful and pleasant person!<\/p>\n Rather than immediately change your belief about him, Kant\u2019s third rule commands you to investigate the world and your own thoughts further. Perhaps you have never listened to death metal with a discerning spirit. Maybe your original beliefs about your colleague were inaccurate. Or could it be that having good taste is more complex than you originally thought?<\/p>\n Rule 3 leads us to do a system check of our mental architecture, whether we\u2019re considering music, politics, morality or religion. And if that architecture is stable, Kant thinks that rewards will follow.<\/p>\n Sure, harmony is satisfying; but that\u2019s not all. A sturdy system of thought might equip us better for integrated, creative thinking. When I understand how things connect, my own control over them can improve. For example, insight about human psychology will open up new ways to think about morality, and vice versa.<\/p>\n But ultimately, Kant found harmony important because it supports the construction of a coherent ‘worldview’. The English language gained that term through the translation of a German word, ‘Weltanschauung’, which Kant coined<\/a>\u00a0and which has been a focus of my\u00a0own work<\/a>. At its most basic, a harmonious worldview allows us to feel more at home in the world. We gain a sense of how it hangs together, and see it as imbued with meaning.<\/p>\n How we think ultimately determines how we live. If we have a stable abode of thought, we take that stability into everything we do and have some shelter from life\u2019s storms.<\/p>\n This article was originally published in <\/strong><\/em>The Conversation<\/strong><\/a>.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\nRule 1: Think for yourself<\/h2>\n
Rule 2: Think in the position of everyone else<\/h2>\n
Rule 3: Think in harmony with yourself<\/h2>\n
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